Glutaraldehyde-crosslinked chitosan reinforced with nanoparticles for wastewater treatment: Chemical structure modification
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.31699/IJCPE.2026.1.1Keywords:
DBT oxidation; Adsorption; Chitosan; Copper oxide; Composite; Emulsion; GlutaraldehydeAbstract
Lead (II) pollution from the various industries is a serious environmental problem that requires urgent attention due to its stability and non-biodegradability. Current research addresses the development of a natural polymer's chemical structure to produce an absorbent nanocomposite for lead removal. This development relied on the available functional groups (amino-NH2 and hydroxyl-OH groups) in biopolymers to create adsorbent material through two steps. The first step was chemical bonding of chitosan with glutaraldehyde as a crosslinking agent (CT-GLA) using emulsion cross linking technique, followed by another bonding with a heterogeneous organic compound to provide additional functional groups (CT-GLA-PD). The second step involved supporting the compound with copper oxide nanoparticles (CT-GLA-PD-Cu) to improve characterizations of the adsorbent. The chemical structure of the materials prepared by paraffin dispersion followed by nanoparticle support was carried out in the current study to explain the functional groups that disappeared and formed during the preparation stages. The surface characterization and chemical composition of the adsorbent resulting from the two stages were performed using advanced descriptive techniques such as Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy, X-ray Diffraction, Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope and Energy Dispersive X-ray. According to the experimental data, the chemical modification showed a significant enhancement in morphology properties and composition elements, which positively impacted removal efficiency. This structure development has been reflected in the lead removal efficiency compared to the raw adsorbent. The results showed that the adsorbent produced in the first stage achieved acceptable lead removal efficiency. This performance was further doubled after the use of nanoparticles as supporting material in the second stage.
Received on 25/11/2025
Received in Revised Form on 03/01/2026
Accepted on 03/01/2026
Published on 30/03/2026
References
[1] F. Wu, B. C. Campbell, P. Greenfield, G. C. Hose, D. J. Midgley and S. C. George "There and back again: Genomic insights into microbial life in a recirculating petroleum refinery wastewater biotreatment system," Microbiological Research, vol. 301, p. 128299, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micres.2025.128299
[2] M. J. Stapleton and F. I. Hai, "Microplastics as an emerging contaminant of concern to our environment: a brief overview of the sources and implications," Bioengineered, vol. 14, p. 2244754, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1080/21655979.2023.2244754
[3] M. S. H. Qaiser, I. Ahmad, S. R. Ahmad, M. Afzal and A. Qayyum, "Assessing Heavy Metal Contamination in Oil and Gas Well Drilling Waste and Soil in Pakistan," Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, vol. 28, pp. 785-793, 2019. https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/85301
[4] A. W. A. Sultan, A. A. Alhello, M. A. Aribi and H. T. Al-Saad, "Assessment of hydrocarbons and trace metals pollution in water and sediments of the Fertilizer Plant wastes in Khor Al-Zubair, Iraq," Mesopotamian Journal of Marine Sciences, vol. 28, pp. 17-28, 2013. https://doi.org/10.58629/mjms.v28i1.152
[5] E. E. Bestawy, M. A. Rass and M. A. Abdel-Kawi, "Removal of Lead and Oil Hydrocarbon from Oil Refining Contaminated Wastewater Using Pseudomonas spp," Journal of Natural Sciences Research, vol. 3, pp. 112-124, 2013.
[6] A. Rivas-Sanchez, A. Cruz-Cruz, G. Gallareta-Olivares, R. B. González-González, R. Parra-Saldívar and H. M. N. Iqbal, "Carbon-based nanocomposite materials with multifunctional attributes for environmental remediation of emerging pollutants," Chemosphere, vol. 303, p. 135054, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135054
[7] Z. Xu, S. Gu, D. Rana, T. Matsuura and C. Q. Lan, "Chemical precipitation enabled UF and MF filtration for lead removal," Journal of Water Process Engineering, vol. 41, p. 101987, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2021.101987
[8] A. Lalmi, K.-E. Bouhidel, B. Sahraoui and C. e. H. Anfif, "Removal of lead from polluted waters using ion exchange resin with Ca (NO3)2 for elution," Hydrometallurgy, vol. 178, pp. 287-293, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2018.05.009
[9] A. Khiter, O. Arous, N. Nasrallah, N. Abdellaoui, D. Meziani, M. Trari, P. Loulergue and A. Szymczyk, "Removal of lead by membrane photo-electrolysis," Separation and Purification Technology, vol. 378, p. 134565, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2025.134565
[10] A. M. Badran, U. Utra, N. S. Yussof and M. J. K. Bashir, “Advancements in Adsorption Techniques for Sustainable Water Purification: A Focus on Lead Removal,” Separations. vol. 10, pp. 1-26, 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations10110565
[11] A. M. Ridha, "Removal of Lead (II) from Aqueous Solution Using Chitosan Impregnated Granular Activated Carbon," Journal of Engineering, vol. 23, pp. 46-60, 2017. https://doi.org/10.31026/j.eng.2017.03.04
[12] S. Shang, X. Li, H. Wang, Y. Zhou, K. Pang, P. Li, X. Liu, M. Zhang, W. Li, Q. Li and X. Chen, "Targeted therapy of kidney disease with nanoparticle drug delivery materials," Bioactive Materials, vol. 37, pp. 206-221, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2024.03.014
[13] N. G. Kandile, H. M. Mohamed and M. I. Mohamed, "New heterocycle modified chitosan adsorbent for metal ions (II) removal from aqueous systems," International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, vol. 72, pp. 110-116, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2014.07.042
[14] A. A. Fadhil and M. E. Ahmed, "Characterization of copper based chitosan nanoparticles synthesis by chemical method: Approach cytotoxic effects on MCF-7 cells," Iraqi Journal of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, vol. 26, pp. 39-50, 2025. https://doi.org/10.31699/IJCPE.2025.3.5
[15] S. Jian, J. Liu, J. Wu, W. Yang, L. Ran, J. Hu, G. Duan, H. Yang, J. Ma and S. Jiang, "Glutaraldehyde-crosslinked chitosan microspheres encapsulating La (OH)3 by electrospraying for efficient remediation of fluoride ions," Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 512, p. 162470, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.162470
[16] B. A. Ávila Camacho, M. A. Rojas Pabón, N. A. Rangel Vázquez, E. A. Márquez Brazón, H. E. Reynel Ávila, D. I. Mendoza Castillo and Y. A. Huerta, “Adsorption of Pharmaceutical Compounds from Water on Chitosan/Glutaraldehyde Hydrogels: Theoretical and Experimental Analysis,” Polysaccharides vol. 6, pp. 1-17, 2025 https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides6040090
[17] M. Tavassoli, R. Abedi-Firoozjah, B. Bahramian, M. Hashemi, S. M. A. Noori, N. Oladzadabbasabadi, A. Nagdalian and S. M. Jafari, "Glutaraldehyde cross-linking for improving the techno-functional properties of biopolymeric food packaging films; a comprehensive review," Food Chemistry, vol. 478, p. 143740, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2025.143740
[18] Z. S. Abdulsada, S. S. Hassan and S. H. Awad, "Removal of Some Heavy Metals from Polluted Water Using New Schiff Base for Polyacrylamide with Zeolite Nanocomposites," Baghdad Science Journal, vol. 21, pp. 2838-2852, 2024. https://doi.org/10.21123/bsj.2024.8591
[19] M. A. Munusamy, M. Bharathi, A. H. Hirad, A. A. Alarfaj, S. H. Hussein-Al-Ali, S. Sampath and A. Kudumba, "An Escin-loaded Glutaraldehyde-Albumin nanoparticle system for enhancing anticancer activity on lung cancer A549 cells," Results in Chemistry, vol. 13, p. 102021, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rechem.2025.102021
[20] Y. Wang, X. Zhang, N. Han, Y. Wu and D. Wei, "Oriented covalent immobilization of recombinant protein A on the glutaraldehyde activated agarose support," International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, vol. 120, pp. 100-108, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.08.074
[21] X. Wei, S. Chen, J. Rong, Z. Sui, S. Wang, Y. Lin, J. Xiao and D. Huang, "Improving the Ca(II) adsorption of chitosan via physical and chemical modifications and charactering the structures of the calcified complexes," Polymer Testing, vol. 98, p. 107192, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2021.107192
[22] A. OU and I. BO, "Chitosan Hydrogels and their Glutaraldehyde-Crosslinked Counterparts as Potential Drug Release and Tissue Engineering Systems - Synthesis, Characterization, Swelling Kinetics and Mechanism," Journal of Physical Chemistry and Biophysics, vol. 7, pp. 1-7, 2017. https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0398.1000256
[23] I. Kavianinia, P. G. Plieger, N. J. Cave, G. Gopakumar, M. Dunowska, N. G. Kandile and D. R. K. Harding, “Design and evaluation of a novel chitosan-based system for colon-specific drug delivery” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, vol. 85, pp. 539-546, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.01.003
[24] M. S. Usman, N. A. Ibrahim, K. Shameli, N. Zainuddin and W. M. Yunus in Copper Nanoparticles Mediated by Chitosan: Synthesis and Characterization via Chemical Methods, Molecules, vol. 17, pp. 14928-14936, 2012. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules171214928
[25] S. R. Fouda, A. Abuessawy, A. A. H. Abdel-Rahman, H. S.El-Hema, M. N. Eisa and M. A. Hawata, "New functionalized magnetite chitosan–heterocyclic nanocomposites excelling in Cd2+ removal from aqueous solution with biological activity," Applied Water Science, vol. 15, p. 31, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-024-02353-6
[26] S. M. Ali and S. A. A. Sahib, "Preparing a Compound of New Nanoparticles of Lactam, PE to Improve Their Specifications," Baghdad Science Journal, vol. 21, pp. 1332-1331 2024. https://doi.org/10.21123/bsj.2023.8537
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 The Author(s). Published by College of Engineering, University of Baghdad.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
